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Sambar | Rusa | Chital | Hog | Red | Fallow | Further reading 
Sambar Description If Australia's deer species were listed alphabetically, sambar deer would be last on the list. But as sambar are unquestionably the most important of our six members of the deer family, they must be ranked first. Why are they the most important? Well, of all Australia's deer, sambar have clearly demonstrated that they can survive and prosper in the Australian environment without dependence on improved pasture or human interference of any kind. They appear to be as suited to the Australian environment as any native species and, because of their social structure and behaviour, the effect of sambar on the environment is hardly noticeable. They are still increasing their range and the sambar that now inhabit eastern Victoria and southern New South Wales comprise the most important herd in the world outside of their native countries where the available habitat is diminishing daily and where they may, eventually, become another threatened species. Sambar are the largest of Australia's wild deer and the third largest of all deer species behind moose and wapiti. They are extremely wary and shy and have a well-earned reputation as one of the hardest to hunt of all the world's game animals. It is quite normal for the majority of the human population to be unaware of the existence of sambar populations in our forested areas. They are strong and tough animals with a thick hide and coarse hair of a uniform brown colour on the body. This brown colour fades to a light buff colour under the chin, on the inner legs and along the under-body. The rump is usually ginger. The ears are large and round and the inner ear is pale with tufts of longer hair at the base. Sambar are expert at standing completely motionless and it is only an occasional movement of their prominent bat-like ears which sometimes betrays them to an experienced eye. The colour of individual deer may vary between a light brown, almost grey, to nearly black. However, the colour of an individual will also vary at different times of the year and in different weather and light conditions. An old hunter's tale that sambar grow darker with age has no basis in fact. Stags can stand up to 130cm at the shoulder (about the height of a Jersey cow) and weigh over 300kg. Hinds are smaller and can grow to about 115cm and weigh in the vicinity of 230kg. Although they are plainer than most other deer species there is nothing to match the magnificent presence of a sambar stag or the beauty of a sambar hind. Calves are born after a gestation period which appears to be more variable than in other species but still approximates to eight months. They are not spotted at birth but usually have a pronounced dark (dorsal) stripe down the spine. A sambar antler is typically three tined and the outer top tine is usually the continuation of the main beam while the inner top tine is somewhat shorter. This is not always the case and there are many instances of stags with 'shanghai' tops where the inner tine matches or exceeds the length of the outer tine. If there is any rule about sambar antlers, it is that, though similar, they are almost never identical. Sambar have a hollow below the eye in which the preorbital gland is situated. This gland is everted when the deer is aroused. The sight of an aggressive sambar stag with everted glands, rolling eyes, grinding teeth and hissing fiercely is certainly one of the most frightening sights you could ever wish to see. Sambar stags, and some hinds, have a ruff or mane about the neck just behind the head, and this can be erected when the animal is aroused. They have a metatarsal gland on the outside of each of their hind legs and their hooves are small and neat in comparison to the animal's size. History Sambar were obtained mainly from Sri Lanka with a smaller number coming from India. They were first released in the early 1860s at Mount Sugarloaf in what is now the Kinglake National Park, and at Harewood, near Tooradin, on the edge of the then Koo Wee Rup swamp. Later releases were at Ercildoune, between Ballarat and Mount Cole and at Wilsons Promontory and French Island in Westernport Bay. Another release was made on the Cobourg Peninsula in the Northern Territory. Although the South Gippsland deer prospered for a time, most eventually disappeared probably because of reduced habitat as land was cleared for farming. The Tooradin deer gradually moved through the Koo Wee Rup swamp, which was also being drained and cleared, and eventually began to colonise the West Gippsland ranges from Pakenham through to Noojee. In 1939 wildfire destroyed much of the forest in eastern Victoria, and the regeneration which followed provided a wonderful source of food for the expanding sambar population. The timing coincided with the Second World War, which meant that hunting pressure was reduced dramatically and the sambar built up their numbers in nearly ideal conditions. But a good population of sambar would be considered to be low numbers for other deer species. The social structure of the sambar population does not allow for high population densities so, as numbers increase, the deer colonise new country or slow down their breeding activity. After the war, recreational hunting slowly gained in popularity and the deer were regularly hunted in the Bunyip, Tarago, Latrobe and Yarra watersheds. At the same time, young deer, which had been forced out by social pressures, were infiltrating the river systems to the north and east. The deer from the Mount Sugarloaf release followed a similar pattern and the two groups eventually merged. From their original release points, the sambar dispersed into almost all of the forested country in eastern Victoria, in a slowly moving 'wave' pattern. At the front of the wave were young animals which roam widely and establish themselves in the best of the available habitat. These animals mature into very large deer because there is little competition for food. Numbers gradually increase until a peak population is reached, when there is a sharp decline brought about by a reducing food supply and a social structure in which the older females force the younger ones to leave and find their own home range. The older females do not reproduce as regularly as younger individuals so the population decreases quickly. When there are comparatively large numbers of deer, body size is markedly smaller and the reproductive rate is less. Behind the wave, the sambar gradually rebuild their numbers at a rate dependent on the quality of the habitat. Natural events such as floods and wildfire, and human activities like forestry and fuel reduction burning, play their part in producing good or bad habitat for wildlife and the sambar respond to these changing conditions in the same way as native mammals. Breeding and Reproduction A healthy sambar hind is sexually mature at sixteen months and can be expected to produce her first calf at about two years of age. She will then produce a calf annually, on a more or less regular basis, until her best breeding years are over when calving will become irregular. Twins are very rare. Sambar calves are 'hiders' and remain hidden under bushes or in thick cover for about the first six weeks of their existence. The hind does not necessarily remain in close proximity but visits regularly to feed the calf. As the calves become older, they are sometimes left in company of a yearling or another hind while the mother is feeding. In normal circumstances, the father of the calf will be the dominant stag in her home range. Hinds spend most of their lives within a home range which encompasses sufficient diversity of habitat to provide for nutrition in all seasons, and cover to produce and rear her off-spring. Several hinds may share the same home range but, when too many are present, excess hinds, which are usually the younger animals, will be driven away. Hinds have a similar pecking order to stags and there will always be one hind who is the acknowledged leader whenever they come together in a group which is usually when they congregate at a common food source. From the time that they leave the hind at about two years of age, young stags are very mobile and wander freely. They enter a 'pecking order' and their rank is based on age, size and fighting ability. Mature dominant stags own a 'territory' that normally takes in all, or part, of the home ranges of several hinds. They assert their dominance over younger and lesser stags by means of 'body language' displays, scent marking, and visual display on rub trees. Dominant stags do not waste energy fighting for possession of a hind in season-all their fighting has been done by the time they claim their own territory, either from an old stag in decline, or when a vacancy is caused by the death of the previous dominant stag. For the six or seven months that they are in hard antler and prime breeding condition, the stags travel around their territory, visiting hinds and marking out their breeding territories with strategically placed markers such as rub trees, scrapes, preaching trees and wallows. Scent plays a major part in all of these and, even when rubbing and gouging the bark off a tree, the stag always deposits scent from the pre-orbital glands below his eyes on the freshly rubbed bark. A breeding or mating territory may be established anywhere that hinds 'in oestrus' are living. Preaching trees vary in size from large shrubs and saplings to large trees, but they all have an overhanging branch on which the stag can leave his scent by rubbing the waxy substance in his pre-orbital glands onto the bark. He achieves this by rearing up on his hind legs, or 'preaching', after having scraped the ground bare beneath the limb and urinating there. When the dominant stag has cast his antlers and is 'in velvet', the next stag in the hierarchy will serve any hinds which may come in season. This may even be a two or three year old stag if he is the only one in hard antler at the time. Normally, though, a stag will not get the opportunity to breed until he is at least seven years old. Both stags and hinds begin their decline at about ten to twelve years of age with the hinds producing calves less regularly and the stags being displaced by younger, stronger animals. Behaviour The secret of the sambar's success lies in its low population density and its adaptability. Individual animals have a very low impact on their environment and, because they are so sparsely scattered, their presence is often undetected. They will eat almost anything that grows in the bush including even juvenile eucalyptus leaves. One feature of the sambar's diet is the wide range of prickly plants it eats. Although commonly referred to as browsing animals, sambar feed on grasses, herbs and aquatic plants whenever they are available and these form a large proportion of their diet. In cold, wet and windy conditions, the deer will shelter in the deep gullies and feed heavily on the blackberry bushes that are now entrenched along our watercourses but, as soon as the weather clears, they resume their normal activities over the entire habitat. In the absence of wind, snow does not worry them at all. Sambar are naturally more active at night when they do most of their feeding but, in the absence of hunting pressure, they will often feed during the day as well. Many of their activities such as wallowing and rubbing are carried out en route from their bedding areas to their feeding places. In any group of sambar there will be a lead hind, which tests the area for possible danger before the deer emerge from deep cover. She will always approach from downwind of her objective, even if this means a circling manoeuvre while still in cover. If she is satisfied, her body adopts a more relaxed stance and the other deer will slowly emerge, usually in single file and with any large stag towards the rear of the group. A raised head and tail indicates potential danger and the hind, when unsure of the source of her anxiety, will often stamp a front hoof repeatedly or deliver a loud challenging bark. A sharp alarm bark or 'honk' is guaranteed to send the other deer into the bush. If there is no wind the deer will probably return in an attempt to identify the problem. If there is some breeze the deer will quickly circle downwind to identify the interloper by scent. Sambar have remarkable powers of sight, scent and hearing. Perhaps sight is the least of these as they may have some difficulty in identifying a stationary object but the slightest movement will be spotted immediately. Normal bush sounds are ignored but any unusual sound makes the big, bat-like ears 'zero in' like radar antenna. Scent is the final arbiter of whether to stay or just melt back into the undergrowth, and the deer will often lift their noses skyward to test for any foreign trace in the air. Every movement of a sambar deer is calculated and deliberate and they are not prone to headlong flight at the sight of a human unless they are caught in the open. Because of their colouring, sambar are very difficult to see in the Australian bush and their capacity to stand absolutely still ensures that many encounters with humans are known only to the deer. If the person is going to pass uncomfortably close to the deer a loud 'honk', which is not unlike a truck's air-horn in sound and volume, 'freezes' the intruder for the vital seconds necessary for the deer to escape. Once heard, a sambar's 'honk' is never forgotten. Present Situation In the mid 1990s, sambar have colonised most of the forested country in eastern Victoria, and the main part of the expanding wave of sambar is approaching the Dargo River valley. Ahead of the main population, isolated groups of deer have already moved into the best available habitat. Sambar do not recognise State borders and are now establishing themselves in southern New South Wales and parts of the ACT. Large sections of the huge Kosciusko National Park are ideal sambar habitat and they will steadily colonise its rugged terrain in the early part of the twenty-first century. Their benign presence will pass unnoticed by most visitors. Behind the wave, deer numbers have plummeted in some places mainly because of changes in the habitat and, for the same reason, secondary 'waves' have sprung up in many places as the deer respond to new vegetation growth and the sanctuary provided by some no-hunting areas. The main herd is in a continuous state of change, and future management will only be successful if the managers are prepared to adopt flexible and suitable guidelines. The Mount Cole sambar have been isolated from the remainder of the Victorian herd and have formed a fairly stable population. Isolated individuals have been reported at other places in western Victoria, but it is highly unlikely that any viable group exists there apart from those at Mount Cole. A small group of sambar has survived on French Island for many years and individual deer have been known to swim back and forth to the mainland. There are occasional reports of sambar on Wilson's Promontory and Snake Island and some small groups are established in the South Gippsland forests. The population of sambar on the Cobourg Peninsula in the Northern Territory is stable and not expanding its range. If ever there was a deer that had the adaptability to do well in Australian conditions it is the sambar. Although steadily increasing its main range, it has yet to be established that it has ever had any major negative influence on its new environment even after the passage of one hundred and thirty years. 
Rusa (Cervus timorensis) Description Rusa is the Malay word for deer and they are medium sized, rough-coated deer which are biologically allied to the sambar. However, the two species are quite different in size, appearance and behaviour. There are two subspecies established in the wild in Australia and the Javan rusa (Cervus timorensis russa) is the larger. Stags stand up to 110cm at the shoulder and may weigh around 136kg while hinds are considerably smaller at 95cm and 60kg. The coat hair is coarse and sparse and generally a greyish brown in colour although the shade varies between the age groups and sexes and also season-ally. The underparts including the chest and throat are a light grey, almost white in some cases, which is a striking contrast to the main body colour, and there is a line of dark hair which runs down the chest between the forelegs. Ears are pointed, with tufts of long light coloured hair in the upper part of the inner ear, and the skin of the nose is dark brown. There is a pre-orbital gland under the eye, as in sambar, but the rusa's gland is not so prominent. A rusa stag's antlers are quite large, in comparison with its body size, and very distinctive with a typical lyre shape. There is a brow tine, which is often curved, and a terminal fork at the end of the main beam. The thicker part of the main beam continues on into the back tine and this is normally considerably larger than the front tine. In good conditions, a mature rusa stag may grow antlers up to and sometimes exceeding 76cm in length. Most stags cast their antlers in January or February. Compared to their close relative the sambar, rusa are very vocal, and their calls range from an alarm bark to a low, barely audible, vibratory communication between hinds and calves, or the loud shrill sound of rutting stags. History In the nineteenth century many rusa were liberated in New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia but now these have all disappeared, except for those deer situated in the Royal National Park in New South Wales and others which have infiltrated into new country south of the Park. For many years, visitors to the Royal National Park were able to observe the deer living naturally in their rugged environment and some deer were attracted to the most often visited areas by food scraps. These soon became easily approachable and the rusa of the Royal National Park became the most photographed wild deer in Australia. The New South Wales National Parks & Wildlife Service has for many years carried out an eradication campaign aimed at completely wiping out rusa in the Park because they are an introduced species. The wildfires of 1994 temporarily destroyed most of the vegetation in the Park, making the surviving rusa much more vulnerable to this operation. No conclusive evidence has ever been produced to show that the deer had any serious detrimental effect on the Park environment, so the deer are victims of the anti-exotic philosophy so common among our wildlife managers. Another successful liberation, this time of the Moluccan rusa (Cervus timorensis moluccensis), was carried out in 1910 on Friday Island at the tip of Cape York Peninsula. These deer are now more widely distributed and can be found on Prince of Wales and Possession Islands, Groote Eylandt, and have also been reported on the Queensland mainland. Breeding and Reproduction Rusa do not have a regular reproductive cycle but most of the breeding activity does occur during July and August, with a subsequent peak calving time in March and April. Individual hinds may cycle earlier or later and, as is the case with many tropical deer species, there will usually be a stag in hard antler available to accommodate them. The result is that young calves may be observed at widely varying times of the year. The calves are not spotted but are born with adult colouring. Twins are not uncommon. When they are sexually aroused, or 'rutting', the rusa stags wallow and thrash vegetation such as reeds, tussocks and bracken fern. A stag will lower his antlers and 'plough' the vegetation, with the result that a large bundle of greenery is gathered and carried on top of his antlers to intimidate the other deer. Rusa stags do not fight as often as some other deer species but use this antler decoration as a measure of their dominance. The bigger, stronger stags can obviously assemble a much bigger bundle of vegetation. Behaviour Rusa are gregarious animals and live in groups. Except during the main breeding season, the stags form separate groups to the hinds and younger animals. They depend heavily on grasses for food although they are known to enjoy eating certain seaweeds and will drink seawater on occasions. Rusa do not appear to have the same amount of essential 'wildness' as some other deer species in Australia. Present Situation With sympathetic management, rusa could have a good future in those parts of the country where they have already demonstrated their ability to survive. Certainly, in New South Wales at least, the professional wildlife managers are working seriously to eradicate the deer and they have no protection in Queensland. The only force powerful enough to reverse this trend is public opinion.
Chital or Indian Spotted Deer (Axis axis) Description Chital are the most attractive of all the deer species and are certainly one of the most beautiful of all wild animals. Their colouring is most striking, consisting of a reddish to chestnut brown coat with white spots, a striking white upper throat patch and a black dorsal stripe which also contains white spots in a fairly uniform pattern. The belly, inside of the legs and underneath part of the tail is also white. The tail is noticeably longer than in most deer species. The muzzle is a much darker brown than the rest of the face and the ears are pointed. A mature stag may weigh in the vicinity of 80kg and hinds considerably less. Chital are closely allied to the hog deer but they are much taller at the shoulder, standing about 86cm or a little more in the case of a big stag. The antlers of a chital stag are slender and usually of three points as in sambar, rusa and hog deer. Measurement around the main beam rarely exceeds 10cm and the two antlers usually form a 'lyre' shape with terminal forks. In Australia, the longest chital antlers may exceed 82cm. History Chital, or axis deer as they are sometimes known, are natives of India and Sri Lanka where they comprise the major part of the tiger's prey. They were the first species of deer introduced to Australia when, between 1800 and 1803, some were brought to this country by Dr. John Harris of the New South Wales Corps. They figured prominently in later introductions in other States including several in Victoria and on the Darling Downs in Queensland. They were also released at Maryvale station near the Burdekin River, North Queensland. Breeding and Reproduction Chital do not have a clearly defined breeding season and young calves may be seen at any time of the year. Thorough investigation may establish a peak calving season; in India, this is said to occur during the months from October to December - April to June would be the Australian equivalent. Twin calves are seen more often than in most deer species but, generally, the hind will rear only one calf and may abandon the other weaker calf shortly after birth. The stags are aggressive and fight fiercely for possession of the hinds which are productive and capable of quickly increasing the population when habitat and conditions are suitable. The gestation period is about eight months. Behaviour Chital are herd deer which prefer an open forest and grassland environment. They feed mainly on natural grasses or improved pasture if it is available, but will also browse suitable plant species. In Queensland it is common to see chital standing upright on their hind legs to feed on the leaves and fruit of the Chinese apple (Zizyphus mauritania). They can remain upright for quite long periods and the stags will use their antlers to knock fruit and leaves from the tree to the ground. The presence of permanent water is essential to the chital and this has a major influence on the extent of their range. A visitor to the chital's Queensland range can expect to hear the shrill challenging calls of the stags at night and the sharp clash and rattle of their antlers as they meet in combat. The slender antlers of the stags are often broken in these encounters. Although severe injuries and fatalities do occur, the sub-dominant animal will usually disengage from the contest and escape before sustaining any serious injury. Hinds also exhibit aggressive tendencies, usually in asserting their own position in the social order of the herd or a smaller group. This aggression will usually take the form of a bite to the flank or rump and may be followed up by a more vigorous attack involving striking with the forefeet if biting is not sufficient to establish superiority. Present Situation It is extremely doubtful if chital exist anywhere in Australia outside of the North Queensland habitat where their future appears to be relatively safe because of their economic value as a hunting resource. Although they suffer a low level of predation by dingoes, they appear to face few problems apart from habitat limitations and seasonal conditions. They have the ability to recover rapidly from a decline in numbers as soon as conditions improve. Healthy chital appear to be tick resistant possibly as a result of their fastidious grooming habits or a natural resistance to external parasites. The regulated recreational hunting which is used as an additional form of income by station owners poses no threat to the chital population and in fact may help to ensure their survival.
Hog Deer (Axis porcinus) Description Hog deer are the smallest of the six species of deer in Australia and although they are a close relative of the chital, bear little resemblance to them. They are similar in size to a sheep. A mature hog deer stag stands about 70cm at the shoulder and weighs approximately 50kg while hinds are much smaller, standing about 61cm and weighing in the vicinity of 30kg. They are very solidly built with a long body and relatively short legs and the line of the back slopes upward from the shoulders to a high rump. A hog deer normally carries its head low when searching for food and this attitude, combined with the quick rushing movement made by the deer when alarmed, is similar to that of a pig and probably the reason for its common name. The ears are rounded and bear more resemblance to those of the sambar than the chital; older animals tend to become light coloured in the face and neck. The hog deer's coat is quite thick and generally a uniform dark-brown in winter except for the underparts of the body and legs which are lighter in colour. During late spring, the change to a summer coat of rich reddish brown commences although this may vary between individuals. Many hog deer show a dark dorsal stripe extending from the head down the back of the neck and along the spine. In summer, there is usually a uniform row of light-coloured spots along either side of the dorsal stripe from the shoulders to the rump. The tail is fairly short and brown but tipped with white. The underside of the tail is white and the deer can fan the white hairs out in a distinctive alarm display. Hog deer have pre-orbital glands on the face just below the eyes and metatarsal glands located high on the side of the rear legs. Pedal glands are located between the cleaves or toes of the hind hooves. The antler of a mature hog deer stag is typically three tined-brow tine with solid main beam terminating in inner and outer top tines. However, antlers with more points are not uncommon. The distinctive features of typical hog deer antlers are the acute angle between the brow tine and main beam and the fact that the inner tops tend to be short and angle back from the main beam and across towards the opposite antler. History Hog deer are among the most primitive of all the deer species and are native to several south-east Asian countries including India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Burma. A sub-species, the endangered Axis porcinus annamiticus, extends from Thailand to Vietnam and China. After becoming extinct in Thailand, it has recently been re-introduced into two locations in the north of the country. The Acclimatisation Society of Victoria, with the support of the Victorian government, introduced and established hog deer in Victoria during the 1860s. In October 1865, the steamer Pharos transported three stags and nine hinds to their release point at Opossum Creek in Corner Inlet on the eastern side of Wilson's Promontory. Further releases followed near the Latrobe River at Sale, between Seymour and Yea and in the hills near Gembrook. The deer became firmly established in the coastal swamps and off-shore islands but declined elsewhere. Breeding and Reproduction At times of mating activity the stags will fray small shrubs or trees with their antlers and follow the hind that is coming into season. Dominance among the stags decides the breeding animals but younger stags are ever alert for any opportunity when the dominant male's attention lapses. The hind may seek to run away in the early stages but, as she becomes more receptive, the stag keeps very close to her and attempts to place his chin across her back preparatory to mounting. Mounting attempts continue until the hind is ready to stand. Hog deer do not have a specific breeding season. Hinds are not restricted to any definite period of oestrus and stags are fertile when in hard antler and, possibly, also when they are in late stages of velvet. As a result, calves are born throughout the year although there is a peak in the late winter and early spring. The peak of mating activity occurs when most of the stags are in hard antler from late December through January. Calves average about 2.4kg at birth and are distinctively spotted. Twins are not unknown but are certainly uncommon. The gestation period is approximately 225-240 days. Calves older than three months and less than yearlings are known as juveniles. Behaviour Because of their small stature and the dense nature of their preferred habitat, hog deer have not needed to develop long range vision and rely primarily on their excellent hearing and scenting senses. However they are quick to pick up movement and, if uncertain of its origin, may even take a few steps in that direction in an effort to determine the cause. A deer will often pretend to resume feeding only to quickly raise its head again in an attempt to detect any further movement. Both hearing and sense of smell are affected by strong windy conditions and hog deer become very uneasy during this type of weather, often staying in thick cover or seeking sheltered feeding areas. Hog deer communicate with a variety of vocal calls, hoof stamping and also by a series of displays and scent marking. The scent marking probably results from the pre-orbital, metatarsal and pedal glands coming into contact with vegetation or the ground. When disturbed, a hog deer will raise its tail and fan out the white hairs of the underside in a distinctive alarm display. They have been noted to groom themselves regularly by licking or by delicately scratching otherwise inaccessible areas with the tip of a rear hoof. Hog deer are not territorial animals nor do they live in large groups although numbers of them may frequently be seen feeding on favoured areas. After feeding, however, they disperse and bed down singly or in very small groups. If disturbed, they invariably select individual escape routes. The normal life span for a hog deer in Australia is less than ten years but individuals that manage to survive predators, hunters and bad seasons may live several more years. A hog deer that spends its life in captivity may be expected to live for up to fifteen years. Natural predators include feral dogs, foxes and wedge-tailed eagles but the most significant predator is, without doubt, man the hunter. Experience has shown that regulated hunting, while it results in the death of individual animals, has a beneficial effect on the health and vigour of the population as a whole. Present Situation During the 1950s and 1960s the hog deer sank to a dangerously low population level because of widespread use of 1080 poison to control rabbits, and loss of habitat from scrub clearance and drainage of wetlands. The population is now responding to rehabilitation measures taken by the combined efforts of hunters concerned for the future of this attractive little deer and the wildlife department. On Sunday Island, The Para Park Co-operative Game Reserve Limited has demonstrated how hog deer will respond to good management practices by building the island's deer population from a handful of animals to its present strong population. Another group of hunting organisations, in co-operation with the Victorian Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, has rehabilitated deer numbers in the Blond Bay State Game Reserve to such an extent that regulated, balloted hunting is now used as a means to harvest the natural increase. A further study into management practices may result in the deer being actively managed wherever suitable habitat occurs on private land, and this should guarantee their existence into the foreseeable future. 
Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) Description Red deer are the second largest of Australia's wild deer species and are probably the deer with which most mainland Australians are familiar because of their presence in large numbers on deer farms. A mature stag stands about 120cm at the shoulder and weighs somewhere between 135kg and 160kg. Hinds are considerably smaller standing about 90cm and weighing about 92kg.They are called red deer because their summer coat is a rich russet-brown on their body and outer legs. The underparts of the body and neck tend towards grey. Both sexes have a distinctive straw-coloured patch on the rump or caudal area. In winter, their coats vary between dull brown and grey. Calves have white spots at birth but this coat is soon replaced and, at about six weeks of age, they are a uniform dull brown in colour. The red deer's ears are long and pointed and have a dense growth of light coloured hair on the inside which is said to enhance their acute hearing, particularly in windy conditions. Their tails are short-approximately 15cm in length-and, unlike many other species of deer, they are not used as an alarm signal. The hooves of red deer are large by comparison with the bigger bodied sambar. The antlers of a mature red stag are quite impressive and consist of a main beam and three tines on the lower half of the antler. These are the brow tine which grows out of the main beam just above the coronet, the bez tine which is normally situated just above the brow, and the trez tine which protrudes from the main beam just below its half-way mark. The main beam usually ends in a terminal crown of two or three tines. A stag having brow, bez and trez tines and a crown of three terminal tines on both antlers is referred to as a 'royal'. An abundance of good food may influence antler growth to such an extent that mature stags will commonly grow antlers with more than twelve points. Occasionally, a red stag will not grow antlers at all and these animals are referred to as hummels. Because they do not have the immense drain on their body resources brought about by antler growth, these stags are usually larger in body size than antlered stags. The offspring of a hummel stag will usually grow antlers in the normal fashion, although there is anecdotal evidence that they tend to increase in populations from which they are not removed. History Red deer are natives of Europe, Asia and parts of North Africa. They are the deer most often referred to by those brought up in the ways of European hunting traditions. The two most important sources of Australia's red deer are Windsor Great Park and Knowsley Park in Lancashire, England. Windsor Great Park was in existence in the 13th century and the herd had a large infusion of German red deer late in the 17th century. A few animals of Scottish bloodlines were also brought into Australia but their influence is much stronger in the Queensland herd than in the southern states. The most impressive antlers are certainly those grown by the Queensland deer. The most important herd of red deer to be established in Australia was at Thomas Chirnside's Werribee Park homestead between Melbourne and Geelong. Deer from this herd were sent to various parts of Victoria, Western Australia, Queensland and New Zealand. Breeding and Reproduction Red deer have a short period of intense breeding activity which is known as the rutting season, 'the rut' or 'the roar'. It occurs in the early autumn and there is great competition between the mature stags for the available hinds. In most cases, a stag may collect a group of hinds and defend his claim vigorously when challenged by another stag. At this time, the stags are very vocal and their 'roaring' is a never to be forgotten experience. In his attempts to mate with the hinds and drive away his rivals, the stag has little time to eat and loses weight quickly. At the end of the rut the stags are in very poor condition. The gestation period is about 240 days and calves are born in November and December. Behaviour Red deer are very regular in their habits and stags cast their antlers from mid-September to late October. New antler growth begins almost immediately and is completed in about eighteen weeks when the stags will rub or 'fray' the velvet from their antlers on bushes and saplings. In the breeding season, a group of red deer will be led by a hind and the master stag will usually follow warily behind these animals. Red deer are normally not very vocal but this behaviour changes dramatically during the rut, when the stag's reproductive drive overcomes his other natural instincts and he becomes vocal and aggressive to all other males. It is at this time that a red stag is most vulnerable to a hunter who imitates the sound of a red deer roaring. At other times, if danger threatens, it is usually the hinds that call with an alarm bark which may be repeated if the deer are unsure of the location of the possible threat. Except during the breeding season, the sexes seem to go their separate ways. Hinds, together with calves, yearlings and even some stags in their third year, form into groups which stay fairly close to the area where the hinds were born while the older stags tend to congregate elsewhere. As with all general statements there are exceptions to the rule, but this is the normal situation until the rut begins, when the older stags rejoin the hinds and drive out any younger males. Red deer prefer open forested country but will also inhabit steep, heavily forested terrain with dense cover. They browse and graze and will feed on most palatable shrubs and grasses. Both sexes enjoy wallowing in muddy pools and they usually feed at night and early in the morning and bed down during the day. Present Situation At the present time, the main Australian red deer herd is well established in Queensland's Brisbane and Mary river systems both on private property and in State forest. Until 1994, red deer were listed as protected wildlife in Queensland but the Government then moved to remove this protection. While the deer are not classified as vermin, the removal of their listing as protected wildlife precludes positive management of the Queensland deer, and their situation is unlikely to improve until this state of affairs is reversed. Successive years of drought conditions and trapping by deer farmers have also reduced numbers and breeding potential. However, the red deer have survived harsh conditions before and there is no reason to believe that they will not do so in future. Their range is large enough to cater for most eventualities. The Grampians herd in Victoria is fairly stable and relatively safe because most of the area is National Park and the habitat is not likely to suffer change except from natural causes. Because the area is restricted in size and surrounded by a sea of grassland, there is little likelihood that the deer will increase dramatically in numbers. Small groups of red deer have been reported in the Otway Ranges over many years and these may have the potential to consolidate and expand. The Victorian red deer are from the same base stock as the Queensland deer but, probably because of mineral deficiencies and restricted habitat, the stags rarely match the quality of their northern cousins. Other groups of red deer occur on private land in New South Wales and the south-east of South Australia and it remains to be seen if these will develop into significant populations. 
Fallow Deer (Dama dama) Description Fallow deer are the small, spotted deer often seen in large groups on deer farms as you travel along country roads. In that semi-domesticated situation, they bear little resemblance to free-roaming fallow deer which have the alertness and bearing of all the natural prey species that have learned how to survive and prosper in the wild by constant awareness of their surroundings. Mature fallow bucks stand about 90cm at the shoulder and weigh approximately 90kg. Does are much smaller and lighter, standing about 76cm and weighing only about 40kg. Colour varies considerably in fallow deer and ranges from the common or 'red' fallow deer, through the black or melanistic fallow, to animals which are creamy white. In summer, the common fallow has a light reddish-brown coat with large spots on its flanks above an off white stripe which runs along the body between the fore and hind legs. Below this stripe the brown colour continues for about 10cm before giving way to the white of the under-belly and inside of the legs. A black dorsal stripe extends down the tail and around the area at the base of the tail but the under-tail is white and quite distinctive when raised in alarm. The winter coat of the common fallow is a smoky grey without spots. The menil fallow is a colour variety which is very similar to the common fallow in summer coat although the main body colour is paler and it lacks the black markings. Instead, true menil fallow have a Y shaped convergence of spots on the haunches. It differs from the common fallow by retaining its lighter colour and spots throughout the year. A mature fallow buck's antlers are quite different in shape and style to the antlers of any other deer species in this country. Brow and trez tines emerge from the beam as in some other species and, occasionally a bez tine is also produced. Above the trez tine, the beam flattens or 'palmates' into a broad palm-like area. The points on the rear edge of the palm are termed 'spellers', while the lowest of these is called the guard tine. History Fallow deer originated in parts of Europe, Asia Minor, Spain and north-west Africa and have been established in the wild in Australia since their introduction and release sometime around 1830. They are now the most widespread of the six species which successfully adapted to the Australian environment with wild populations in Tasmania, South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland. Fallow deer do well in fringe country where there is a mixture of developed and semi-developed farmland with open forest or scrub nearby. Wherever they occur in Australia, their habitat consists of these basic requirements. Breeding and Reproduction Fallow deer have evolved in a European environment characterised by severe winters in which food shortages may occur due to heavy snowfalls. Because of this, they have adopted a breeding strategy which results in their offspring being born at the most favourable time of year-late spring through early summer. Consequently the 'rut' or breeding season is confined to a period of about six weeks-while seasonal conditions may affect the timing and intensity of the rut this is not to any great extent. It is therefore predictable that the peak rutting activity occurs during April. The gestation period is about 8 months and fawns begin to appear from late November through to January. Late fawns, those born after January, may be small animals not sufficiently well grown to survive the rigours of a severe winter. The incidence of late fawns is rare in a healthy and well managed herd but can become a problem if the breeding stock is weak or there is a severe imbalance in the ratio of bucks to does. The more even the ratio of the sexes, the more successful the breeding will be and the stronger the resultant offspring. During the breeding season, a mature buck marks out a rutting stand by scraping the ground with his forefeet to create a number of shallow depressions. He urinates in these scrapes and transfers the scent from the scrape to his body by either lying in the depression or by rubbing his antlers and muzzle in the moist soil. As he moves about his selected stand, traces of this scent are left on vegetation wherever he touches it with his body. He rubs his pre-orbital glands onto the vegetation and leaves traces of a wax-like substance which has a very strong smell. He also thrashes saplings and shrubs with his antlers and marks trees by vigorously rubbing his antlers on the bark. By doing these things, he establishes territorial markings which can be recognised by other bucks (both by smell and sight) and he can concentrate on enticing does on to his stand and defending his territory from other bucks. With the onset of the rut, fallow bucks become very vocal and give voice by uttering a series of deep throaty grunts. This is called 'groaning' or 'troating'. Bucks seem to be continually on the move during the rut, calling frequently in their efforts to attract does to their stand. They are particularly aggressive at this time and fight fiercely with other bucks as they seek to establish or maintain their dominance. Unless he can break away from such an encounter and escape, a weaker buck may suffer serious injury or death as a result. Behaviour Fallow deer feed mainly in the early morning and late evening, but in common with most deer they are also inclined to move about for a short period in the middle of the day. After feeding, the deer move into cover to rest and chew the cud. They are primarily grazing animals and make full use of any available pasture while using the adjacent forest or scrub for cover. Because they are creatures of the open forest where good vision is an advantage, fallow deer possess extremely good vision and can detect movement at a great distance. Present Situation There is a very strong population in Tasmania where large areas of ideal habitat consisting of undulating grassland broken by areas of hardwood forest provide excellent feed and cover. Management, by way of hunting regulations has been applied by the wildlife department, however this has been ineffective and the full potential of the herd has not been realised. Under the system in place, very few young bucks survived to maturity and the natural process of selection that guarantees high quality in the herd suffered from this interference. In recent years the employment of an American biologist with an excellent grounding in the management of white-tailed deer has begun to change this situation. Both landowners and hunters have been made aware of the positive rewards of quality deer management and are now working together, in partnership with the government, to achieve long-term conservation benefits for Tasmania's fallow deer. In New South Wales, fallow deer are found in the Glen Innes area and, further south, near Lake George in the ACT. Management of the deer depends solely on the landowners, sometimes in co-operation with hunter organisations. Queensland's fallow deer are numbered more in the hundreds than the thousands and are located near the border with New South Wales in the Stanhope/Warwick area of the Southern Highlands. Some of the deer occur on public land where no hunting is permitted but some hunting is carried out on private property where hunters may be charged a fee for access to the property. Availability and retention of suitable habitat are the most important factors influencing the future of fallow deer in Queensland. There are several small populations of fallow deer in Victoria, perhaps the most significant one being a herd living in mixed softwood/hardwood forest at Koetong in the north-east of the State. This herd is the result of the release of deer donated by a private conservation group, the Victorian Deer Conservation Co-operative, under the sponsorship of the former Deer Advisory Council of Victoria. Despite a lack of management by the wildlife department and constant poaching by illegal hunters, the herd has expanded and has great potential. Renewed interest by the Australian Deer Association promises a great future for this herd if the effort can be maintained and is supported by positive action from the Department of Natural Resources and Environment. Other groups such as those along the Murray River, in the Healesville/ Narbethong area, in suitable fringe country just north of the Central Highlands and on Sunday Island are relatively insignificant. Small and scattered populations elsewhere in the State are mainly the result of escapes from deer farms-these latter groups are not likely to expand in most places because of habitat limitations. Fallow deer establishment in the south-east of South Australia is a success story that demonstrates what can be achieved with proper management of this attractive little deer. The south-east contained a vast area of low scrub interspersed with good quality improved pasture, and this area supported a good population of wild deer for many years until declining habitat significantly reduced their numbers. Concerned members of the South-East Branch of the Australian Deer Association began a costly rehabilitation program, only to see most of their efforts wiped out in the holocaust which became infamous as Ash Wednesday, when wildfire destroyed huge areas of the south-east. A dedicated and committed group of hunters then began a re-building program. First they enlisted the co-operation of many of the landowners in an agreement that the ADA members be allowed to manage the deer on their properties. Then they purchased and released additional deer to invigorate the survivors of the original herd. A hunting program was instituted almost immediately, but under a system where the right to hunt could only be earned by work in deer conservation projects, and hunting was carried out under very strict rules. The result is a herd which is both healthy and expanding and producing some of the best quality fallow deer in Australia. The management of fallow deer in the south-east of South Australia is a role model for management of deer on private land anywhere in Australia. Further reading The foregoing information on the species of deer now established in the wild in Australia is intended as an introductory outline. If you propose to make weld deer an important leisure time interest. Further reading is essential for better understanding and greater enjoyment of an exciting and complex subject. Many books on deer and deer hunting are becoming difficult to buy. The following titles are more or less readily available in bookshops and libraries. Don't overlook the importance of reading all you can about your chosen subject.
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